The Bible As Literature

As the Bible communicates to different groups of people, Bible scholars had shown that Biblical writers used many different forms in conveying its messages. It has been seen that one-third of the Old Testament and a surprising amount of the New Testament are found in poetic form.

             This paper tackles some of the features and tries to analyze each of this popular biblical literary forms and strategies, which are shown below:

POETRY

Poetry is found abundantly in the Old Testament. Not only in the two well known books of David and his son Solomon: Psalms and Proverbs, but also in Job, Songs of Solomon, Lamentations and in large parts of the Prophets.  The features of Bible poetry are clear in Hebrew, but some of them are lost in translation.

 Parallelism, a rhythm of thought, is one example of this.  This simply means that the poetry is written in couplets, two lines that are related to each other in some way, and are of the same length that usually rhyme.  On some occasions there are three lines (Isaiah 41:5) and sometimes even four (Psalm 27:1), but the usual is two. There are various kinds of parallelism to express different basic ideas.  Each of these has a proper name.

1. Repetition, expressed by identical, or synonyms, parallelism. The two lines express the same or similar thought indifferent words.  A good example can be found in Isaiah 1:3: Israel does not know, my people does not understand.  Here we can see that for the sake of clarity or emphasis the second line repeats the same thought.
2. b. Contrast, expressed by antithetic parallelism. To make the truth more emphatic and forceful, two lines express contrasting, or even contradictory, thoughts. Proverbs has a great deal of this kind of parallelism.  Often the second line of a couplet starts with ‘but’, indicating a contrast.  This can be observed in Proverbs 15:1 A soft answers turns away wrath, but a harsh word stirs up anger.
3. Addition, expressed by synthetic parallelism. In this, the second line adds a complementary thought to the first.  Sometimes it gives the reason for the first, beginning with the word for like in Psalm 9:10.  Or it may show purpose, beginning with that or so that in Psalm 104:5.  Some students say this is not true parallelism, yet because there are related lines and a balance of construction, this can be considered as such.
4. Expansion, expressed in climatic parallelism. In this parallelism the second line repeats part of the first but adds something fresh – a new step, as it were. Psalm 34:4 I sought the Lord, and He answered me, and delivered me from all my fears. What part of the first line is expanded in the second?
5. Transformation, expressed by emblematic (meaning symbolic or representing) parallelism wherein one line is literal while the other is figurative. Since commonly the two lines are talking about the same thing, it is usually also known as a synonymous parallelism. (Sterret, 1974)

FIGURES OF SPEECH

These are words or phrases that are used to communicate something other than its literal, natural meaning.  They express truth in a different way – a more vivid and interesting way.  The most common types that are used in the Old Testament are shown in the succeeding outline:            

1. Figures of Comparison

Simile, perhaps one of the most common figures of speech in comparing using the words, as and like as. An example, Psalm 42:1 As a deer longs for flowing streams, so longs my soul for Thee, O God. The simile of a thirsty deer adds beauty and vividness to the Psalmist’s statement of his desire for God (Sterrett, 1974).  The simile is designed to show what the author means.  Since it is an expressed and stated comparison, it is the easiest of all figures of speech to recognize; its function in the text is generally quite clear.

Metaphor, is defined as an implicit comparison in which one item of the comparison (the “image”) carries a number of components of meaning of which usually only one is contextually significant to and shared by the second item (the “topic”). (Beekman and Callow, 1975).  Observing the passage Genesis 49:9 A lion’s whelp is Judah, we perceive at once that the word lion is not used literally, but only some notable quality or characteristic of this creature intended to describe Judah. Hence, metaphor is a figure of speech where the sense of one word is transferred to another.

The sources from which scriptural metaphors are drawn are to be looked for chiefly in the natural scenery of the lands of the Bible, the customs and antiquities of the Orient, and the ritual of worship of the Hebrews.

In Jeremiah 2:13, we have two expressive metaphors: My people have committed two evils: for they have forsaken Me, a fountain of living waters, to hew for themselves cisterns, broken cisterns, that can hold no water.   A fountain of living waters, especially in such a land as Palestine, is of inestimable worth; far more valuable than any artificial well or cistern, that can at best only catch and hold rain water, and is liable to become broken and lose its contents.  The ingratitude and apostasy of Israel are strikingly characterized by the first figure, and their self-sufficiency by the second  (Terry, 1978).  Metaphors can be found in many passages in the Old Testament such as in Job 9:6, Genesis 49:14, Deuteronomy 32:40, Hosea 8:8, and Judges 5:14

Allegory, in actual usage in theology, is employed in restricted sense, being used however in three ways, as in rhetoric, hermeneutic and in homiletic.  In the first mentioned sense, ordinary allegory of rhetoric is usually defined as an extended or continued metaphor, which can be found in some Old Testament passages like Psalm 80: 8-10, Proverbs 5:15-23 and Ecclesiastes 12:3-7. (Schodde, 1974)

 Taking Psalm 80:8 – 23 as an example, the allegory of the “vine (taken) out of Egypt” clearly refers to what God did for Israel, who in this case is the “vine.”  But an even better example of the extended metaphor is Proverbs 5:15-23.  This allegory encourages sexual intimacy amid marital fidelity with the image of drinking water from one’s own cistern or well.  The clue that the writer unlocks this allegory comes in verse 18, where he appears to interrupt what would otherwise seem to be a disquisition on saving water; he urges, “Rejoice in the wife of your youth.”  So intrusive does this statement appear at first that one is tempted to believe the line does not belong there – the subject is water.  But when the writer continues, “May her breasts satisfy you always, may you ever captivated by her love”(v. 19), it is clear that what we have here is an allegory (Kaiser and Silva, 1998).

In the history of Biblical exegesis allegory represents a distinct type of interpretation, particularly of historical passages, shows that it does not exhaust the divinely purposed meaning, but that include a deeper and higher spiritual and mystical sense.

B. Figures of Addition or Fullness of Expression

                       Pleonasm, is the use of superfluous, as in 2 Samuel 7:22, we have heard with our ears or Deuteronomy 3:27, Behold it with our eyes.  In some translation the unnecessary words are dropped. (Sterret, 1974)

           Paronomasia, is another way to capture the attention of the listeners or readers. It involves a fullness of expression by repeating words that are similar in sound, but not necessarily in sense and meaning in all cases, for often the similar sounding words are use merely to achieve a certain effect.  One of the most famous examples is found in the opening chapter of the Bible, waste and void Genesis 1:2  (Kaiser and Silva, 1998).

Hendiadys, is a way to increase the effect of what is being said using two words when the only one thing is being referred to.  In Genesis 19:24 the Hebrew text literally says that it rained down fire and brimstone. The NIV, however, acknowledges that hendiadys, when translated is burning sulfur   (or it could also be brimstone that was on fire).  (Kaiser and Silva, 1998).

Hendiatris, is related to hendiadys, where three words are used to expressed a single concept.  An example comes from Daniel 3:7, where King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon commanded that the sound of instruments, all the people, the nations, and the languages (literal translation) should fall down and worship the image he has set up.  It is a simple fact that languages do not fall down much less worship, therefore the figure hendiatres clearly states that the people of every people and language were required to bow down in worship of this idol  (Kaiser and Silva,1998).

Hyperbole, is a rhetorical figure, which consists of exaggeration, or magnifying an object beyond reality.  It has its natural origin in the tendency of youthful and imaginative minds to portray facts in the liveliest colors.  An ardent imagination would very naturally describe the appearance of the many camps of the Midianites and Amalekites as in Judges 7:12 Lying in the valley like grasshoppers for multitude; and as to their camels, no number, like the sand which is upon the shore of the sea for multitude.  In the same way does the emotion of David prompts him to speak of Saul and Jonathan as swifter and stronger than lions (2 Samuel 1:23). Other scriptural examples of this figure are the following: All night I make my bed to swim; with my tears I dissolve my couch (Psalm 6:6).  Would that my head were waters and my eyes a fountain of tears; and I would weep day and night the slain of the daughter of my people (Jeremiah 9:1) (Terry, 1978).

C. Figures of Relation and Association

                        Metonymy. Because figures of speech are based on some type of resemblance or relation that different objects bear to one another, it is possible to express a cause was intended, or is the substituting of one word for another that is closely related to it (Sebranek, 1996).  That David’s house, which God promised in 2 Samuel 7:16 would last forever, as would his throne, did not mean that both the throne and the house can still be seen to this day.  David’s house was his dynasty and family line; his throne stood for his kingship (Kaiser and Silva, 1998).

                        Synecdoche is closely related to metonymy in which the whole could put for the part, or a part put for the whole.  In 1 Samuel 30:12 here David came upon an Egyptian who had been part of the brigade that had stolen all David’s goods and family from Ziklag while he and his six hundred men were away.  When David demanded of the Egyptian how much had elapsed since the raiding Amalekites, whom David was pursuing, had abandoned him, the answer was three days and three nights. But then the Egyptian added My master abandoned me when I became ill, and today is the third day (verse 13, lit.).  Thus all three days and nights were put together because that was the stereotype formula that always went together.  Moreover, it was proper, as numerous examples illustrate in the text, to refer to the whole day and night (or year) when only part of it was intended.

            Another illustration of synecdoche is Judges 12:17 where the Hebrew text literally translated has the judge Jephthah being buried in the cities of Gilead.  Naturally, Jephthah was not cut apart and buried piecemeal all over Gilead, but the total number of cities or towns were put for a part, and so the NIV correctly renders it, [he] was buried in a town of Gilead (Kaiser and Silva, 1998).

D. Figure of Contrasts

Irony is a figure that is different from the others for it says the opposite of what it means and is use for emphasis.  Like hyperbole, it must be clear to the hearers so there is no question of deceit.  If irony is spoken, the speaker’s tone of voice reveals it.  Since we have written rather than spoken words in the Bible, we may have some difficulty recognizing irony.

In 2 Samuel 6:20 King David’s wife says, How the king of Israel honored himself today.  The rest of the verse shows quite clearly that she really meant he had dishonored himself.  In 1 Kings 22:15 the Lord’s prophet foretells success for the proposed expedition, just as the false prophets had done.  He obviously speaks in irony, but most are plain.  When you are uncertain, think carefully about both possibilities.  Consider it as a straightforward statement and see whether that meaning makes good sense in the context.  Then think of it as an irony.  Usually the choice will be clear. (Sterret, 1974).

Other examples can be found in Numbers 24:11, Zechariah 11:13(lordly!), Job 12:2;38:21, 1 Kings 18:27.

Litotes is a form of understatement that affirms a statement by negating its contrary.  Thus, for example, Abraham belittled himself, he who was only dust and ashes Genesis 18:27, in order to magnify the greatness of God. (Kaiser and Silva, 1998).

Euphemism, the third form of contrast appears in the substitution of a gentler, more pleasant, and modest expression for a word that is more agreeable, harsh and indelicate. Judges 3:24 and 1 Samuel 24:3 refer to a man covering his feet as a euphemism for defecating, because his garments would fall around his feet as he stooped down. (Kaiser and Silva, 1998).

E. Figure of Omision

Oftentimes the text omits certain words or expressions, leaving the sense to be supplied by the reader.

Zeugma, is one very interesting form which yokes two subjects or objects together with one verb in which the verb actually functions appropriately for only one of the two subjects or objects.  Many of these have been clarified by supplied verbs in most modern translations, so they would show up only in literal renderings of the Hebrew or Greek text.  In Genesis 4:20 Jabal… was the father of all who live in tents and cattle (lit.) In translating…and raise livestock, the New International Version shows us more directly (but less colorfully) what the writer thought his audience should understand (Kaiser and Silva, 1998).

TYPES AND SYMBOLS

Both of these resemble each other in being sensible representations of moral and religious truth, may be defined, in general, as figure of thought in which material objects are made to convey vivid spiritual conceptions to the mind. (Terry, 1978)

  Crabb (1859) defines types and symbols as different species of emblem by which one object is made to represent another mystical; it is, therefore, only employed in religious matters, particularly in relation to the coming, the office and death of our Savior; in this manner the offering of Isaac is considered as a type of our Savior’s offering Himself as an atoning sacrifice.  The symbol is that species of emblem which is converted into a constituted sign among men; thus the olive and laurel are the symbols of peace, and have been recognized as such among barbarous, as well as enlightened nation.  The thus the rainbow is a symbol of the covenanted mercy and faithfulness of God (Genesis 9: 13-16; Ezekiel 1, 28; and Isaiah 54:8-10)

Thus as, Kaiser and Silva (1998) showed that despite the amount of poetry in the Bible and the wealth of our knowledge of classical poetic form in the Greek and Latin poets, interpreters of the Bible are often unaware of the special hermeneutical demands of poetry.  Part of the problem exists within the discipline of Bible interpretation itself, for some of the most important decisions about how we are to treat poetry still have not been successfully resolved by the scholars of this form.  This means that we often must take a much more tentative attitude in interpreting biblical poetry.

As with the figures of Speech, the Bible contains many of this, but we have now surveyed and illustrated some of the main ones.  They will always proved to be a rich sources of insights. When figure of relation, contrast, addition, or omission are used, care must be taken to retain as much of the point that is being made as both contextual constrains and range of usage of this

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Beekman and Callow. Translating The Word of God.  USA: Zondervan Publishing Co., 1975.

Crabb. English Synonymes. Biblical Hermeneutics. Grand Rapids Michigan:Zondervan Publishing Co.  1974.

Kaiser & Silva.  An Introduction To Biblical Hermeneutics. Philippines: OMF Literature Inc.1998.

Schodde, G.H. The International Standard Bible Encyclopedia. Vol.5. WM. B. Eerdsmans Publishing Co. Grand Rapids,Michigan. 1974.

Sebranek. Writers INC Literary Terms. Massachusetts:Houghton Mifflin Company

Wilmington. 1996.

Sterret, T. Norton. How To Understand Your Bible. USA: Inter-Varsity  Christian Fellowship. 1974.

Terry, Milton S. Biblical Hermeneutics.  Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing, Co. 1974.